Is Climate Change affecting the abundance of disease?

In this post, I will be presenting information that I found through literature that supports climate change affecting the abundance of diseases. Also, a PowerPoint is attached. I presented this in Dr. Sutton’s Ecosystem Science and Management at Tennessee State University in November of 2018. Please use the information to continue your knowledge expansion and reference accordingly!

WARNING: LENGTHY POST BUT HIGHLY EDUCATIONAL

disease and climate change

Climate change is increasing the occurrence of diseases, affecting ecosystems across the world. This poses a great threat to biodiversity, survival of wildlife, and food production.

We know the implications of climate change – the how and why. Diseases are not completely overlooked, but it needs to addressed more often.

There are factors that can easily identify climate change; warmer and shorter winters, changes in hydrology, and when it comes to plants: “…the adaptive potential of plant and pathogen populations may prove to be one of the most important predictors of the magnitude of climate change effects” (Das et al 2016).

This proclamation is supported by a commonly known idea called the Disease triangle. It is composed of susceptible host, favorable environments, and the pathogens. The “…change in temperature and other climatic factors make the plants more vulnerable to pathogens that are currently not important, owing to unfavorable climate” (Das et al 2016).

We have discussed how climate change has affected animal phenology by either delaying or hastening plant growth out of sync with animal reproduction seasons. That results in young deaths, such as the reindeer calves. The same happens to plants, but in terms of being susceptible to diseases from stress: “phenology and physiology of the host are also affected by climate change, thereby affect its virus susceptibility and virus ability to infect” (Das et al 2016).

With an increase of global temperature, the range of plants being able to grow in other places is increasing. But with the shipping of plants to different climatic regions, their pathogens tend to follow. “Pathogens will follow their migrating hosts and because of their rapid response to small environmental changes, they may provide good early warning of impending climate change” (Chakraborty et al 1998). If a pathogen is infecting a plant where it has not been reported before, you can tell about how the environment is changing based on what disease was found.

Climate change presents many challenges to plant disease management:

–Demand for food and production yield: The global population growth means we have to find a way to support the people, and in supporting the population an “increasing demands for total, safe, and diverse foods (are needed) to support the blooming global population and its improving living standards; (thus) reducing production potential in agriculture due to competition for land in fertile areas and exhaustion of marginal arable lands”. Global growth intensifies global climate change, which will only then increase environmental problems.

–Depletion of natural resources: Our ways of agriculture are “deteriorating ecology of agro-ecosystems and depletion of natural resources” which is unsustainable. Depletion of natural resources can set off a domino effect where when a certain component is gone, it affects the other, and so on and so forth that will increase disease occurrence and create stress for plants.

-Risk of epidemics: The “increased risk of disease epidemics resulting from agricultural intensification and monocultures” is seen every day. This is basically an iteration of the demand for food and production yield. The demand has increased each year, when means that the maintenance of the crops is left to chemical treatments which not only degrade the environment but it creates resistance in diseases because of the genetic recombination that will be discussed later in the presentation.

-“Resistant” cultivars/varieties:  almost futile – in nature “host plant and pathogens are constantly changing with pathogens evolving net pathogenicity to overcome host defense systems and plants evolving to reduce pathogen attack” (Das et al 2016); “importantly, many fungi are flexible in their ability to undergo genetic recombination, hybridization or horizontal gene transfer, causing the clonal emergence of pathogenic lineages also allowing the formation of novel genetic diversity leading to the genesis of new pathogens” (Fisher et al 2012).

With winters becoming warmer and shorter, the “down time” for disease populations to be reduce barely makes an impact on the population.

Ahanger et al 2013 states “climate change may alter the growth stage, development rate, pathogenicity of infectious agents, and the physiology and resistance of the host plant”. A longer growth stage, advancement of development rates, and stress of the plants from extreme temperatures create extreme changes that “…may result in geographical distribution, increased overwinter, changes in population growth rates, increases in the number of generations, extension of the development that season, changes in crop-pest synchrony, changes in interspecific interactions and increased risk of invasion by migrant pests” (Ahanger et al 2013).

The higher CO2 concentrations can result “in greater fungal spore production” and the “evolutionary forces act on massive pathogen populations boosted by a combination of increased fecundity and infectious cycles under favorable microclimate” (Ahanger et al 2013).

The “plant of structural diversity and habitat complexity can influence the composition, abundance, and distribution of animals that play important roles in the transmission cycles of some human diseases” (Pongsiri et al 2009).

Forestry:

“have been losses to individual tree species due to new pathogens such as Phytophthora ramorum” (Boland et al 2004)

Chestnut Blight (Cryphonectria parasitica), White Pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), Dutch Elm disease (Ophiostoma ulmi), beech bark disease (Cryptococcus fagisuga insect and Neonectria canker fungi)

Soil-borne pathogens:

“High moisture favors foliar diseases and some soil-borne pathogens such as Phytophthora, Pythium, R. Solani, Sclerotium rolfsii” (Das et al 2016)

Wildlife: hit button for quote about wildlife first

“Many fungi in the phylum Ascomycota are common soil organisms and are tolerant of salinity with the consequences that, when they enter the marine system through freshwater drainage, they are able to infect susceptible hosts such as corals, sea otters, and the nest of loggerhead sea turtles (Fusarium solani)” Fisher et al 2012

“The best studies in fungal isolate that can affect both animals and plants is Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Lycopersici which can kill both immunodepressed mice and tomato plants” Sexton, Howlett 2006

Cattle Plague (rinderpest virus)

New races:

“Given that the rate of intra- and inter-lineage recombination among fungi will be proportional to the contact rates between previous geographically separate populations and species, these data from across plant and animal fungal pathosystems suggest that the further evolution of new races is inevitable given current rates of homogenization of previously allopatric, geographically separate, fungal lineages” Fisher et al 2012

Human Health:

“An extreme example is the genus Fusarium, with species that cause diseases in thousands of plant species as well as in animals, including humans” Sharon, Shlezinger 2013

 

From https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis-of-fusarium-infection:

Some clinical manifestations in immunocompetent patients are keratitis, onychomycosis, deep cutaneous infections; in immunocompromised patients are sinusitis, pneumonia, cutaneous lesions, fungemia, and disseminated disease.

The difference between immunocompetent and immunocompromised is competent means that the immune system is functional while compromised means that the immune system has been impaired by a disease or treatment. Examples of immunocompromised patients are: AIDS, cancer, transplants. Examples of immunocompetent patients is us.

“The soil-borne fungus Chaetomium globosum can infect plant roots endophytically without inducing disease symptoms and can control infection by some plant-pathogenic fungi. The airborne spores of this fungus can cause invasive diseases with life-threatening symptoms, such as pneumonia, in immune-compromised patients” Sexton, Howlett 2006

“Fungal secondary metabolites are widely recognized for their toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic impacts on vertebrates, and the production of aflatoxin by Aspergillus flavus on contaminated grain and peanuts that is stored in damp conditions is connected to increasing numbers of aflatoxin-induced liver cancers world-wide” Fisher et al 2016

Primarily linked to citrus plants and tobacco, but is now infesting vegetables, medicinal herbs, watersheds, forest trees, recycling irrigation water, and woody ornamentals (Panabieres et al 2016)

It is found on over five continents with a host range of 255 species and can withstand many different climates (Panabieres et al 2016)

Reproduction features are called sporangiophores which are sensitive to the environment – when humidity, temperature, and other favorable conditions are present, it will release zoospores. Zoospores swim freely in water. This is how it moves from site to site and is the primary pathway for genetic recombination (Panabieres et al 2016)

Phytophthora nicotianae is a hemibiotrophic pathogen – it forms an intimate relationship with the host plant cells then it causes the host cell to die. P. nicotianae inhibits the plant response pathways, and begins to suffocate the cells. (Panabieres et al 2016, Kong et al 2017)

Increase stress tolerance:

“Increased emphasis should be placed on breeding plants for environmental stress tolerance as drought stress increases” Boland et al 2004

New Identification Techniques:

“New techniques that enhance the identification and development of host tolerance or resistance to biotic and abiotic diseases will be important in facilitating this adaptation” Boland et al 2004

Consider species selection:

“Because of the long-lived nature of trees, and accordingly the limited degree to which adaptation can occur, it will be increasingly necessary to consider these impacts in forest management including species selection, breeding, and site selection” Boland et al 2004

Microbial populations:

“Microbial populations or control agents also affect the plant-pathogen relationship” Das et al 2016

Evaluate efficacy:

“To cope with the predicted climate change, one can evaluate the efficacy of current physical, chemical, and biological control methods and also by adapting new tools and techniques” Das et al 2016

“First, there is a need to evaluate under climate change the efficacy of current physical, chemical, and biological control tactics, including disease-resistant cultivars, and secondly, to include climate scenarios in all research aimed at developing new tools and tactics” Das et al 2016

Understand pathogenesis and epidemic principles:

“Thus while an understanding of the pathogenesis and epidemic principles of plant pathogen and genetics, biological and physiological mechanisms of host plant defenses is important, so too is the knowledge of interactions with other microbial populations, and the ecological niche of the pathogen” Dun-chun et al 2016

Assess food security:

“Future plant disease management should aim to strengthen food security for a stable society while simultaneously safeguarding the health of associated ecosystems and reducing dependency on natural resources” Dun-chun et al 2016

“Providing safe and adequate food for society is always the most important task of plant disease management. Plant disease management should strive to ensure food security and social standards by increasing crop productivity, reducing food contamination by microbial toxins, and guaranteeing the supply of diverse and reasonable food prices” Dun-chun et al 2016

From Mary Oliver’s Upstream: “Teach the children. We won’t matter so much, but the children do. Show them daises and the pale hepatica. Teach them the taste of sassafras and wintergreen. The lives of the blue sailors, mallow, sunbursts, the moccasin flowers. And the frisky ones – inkberry, lamb’s quarters, blueberries. And the aromatic ones – rosemary, oregano.

Give them peppermint to put in their pockets as they go to school. Give them the fields and the woods and the possibility of the world salvaged from the lords of profit. Stand them in the stream, head them upstream, rejoice as they learn to love this green space they live in, its sticks and leaves and then the silent, beautiful blossoms.

Attention is the beginning of devotion.”

With one week of classes left to be followed by finals, it seems fitting to reflect on the semester and the topics covered.

Why is this important to agriculture? To be honest, there is not a direct connection between this reflection and agriculture except that it reinforces the need to further educate yourself – whether that be continuing education through institutions or performing it yourself.

Reflection of Research Methods

Research Method’s purpose was to introduce the students to the field of true research (not just using google to find answers).

Our professor is active in the field of extension, and in this field is the outreach through use of technology and physical means.

This blog is a result of this class, as well as creating a how-to YouTube video. The latter was a complete flop for me, given the amateur editing skills and loud background noises. I like to think this blog has been somewhat successful!

Other take-away from this class is learning about the ways to set up research trials.

Reflection of Statistics for Research

Ah, statistics. Our professor for this particular class did a phenomenal job in teaching this class.

In this class, we learned how to process our data from our research. In reflection, I probably should have taken better notes but I have learned nonetheless.

Reflection of Environmental Issues and Sustainability

In this course, we learned about what is causing the environmental degradation and what we can do to become more sustainable.

For instance, there are three principles of sustainability. They are solar energy, chemical cycling, and biodiversity. These three principles is what creates a sustainable system because it is how nature works, beautifully. If humanity can mimic these principles, we have a chance of becoming sustainable.

Solar energy would be harnessing the sun’s power – solar panels is a direct form, while hydrology and wind energy are some indirect forms.

Chemical cycling is how nature reuses elements, essentially. So the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, etc…

Biodiversity is almost self-explanatory. If we lose biodiversity, we lose more than just different species of organisms – we lose hope for our future. Biodiversity is essential because it creates less stress for ecosystems. This can dilute diseases, increase ecosystem resilience, and so many other things. I can dedicate a biodiversity post entirely if that would be of interest.

Reflection of Ecosystem Science and Management

This has been my favorite class, hands down. It has been the inspiration for many of my blog posts, and has been a turning point in my career and life.

This course told about problems of ecosystems and some suggestions for how to fix it. We can restore ecosystems, create multifunctional landscapes, and enhance biodiversity.

We have to do a presentation in this class on a topic related to ecosystems. The topic I chose was Disease and Climate Change – does that surprise anyone? However, through this presentation research, I have learned vastly more than I expected. Once I have perfected the content, that will be a post.

That was the whole purpose of this course, connecting what you are doing to the ecosystem. I am studying a specific disease on a specific plant, but in reality, it is so much more than that. By studying a specific disease, you learn how it has changed and adapted to the environment, and by learning those principles it then teaches you about the other diseases.

Conclusion

This semester has been a whirlwind, a learning curve, and such a wonderful experience. There are many times where I have wondered if I made the right choice to continue to graduate school, whether or not I am making the right career choice, and if I will ever make a difference.

The people in my life have assured me time and time again that if it is something I truly enjoy, it is worth doing. The professors I have had this semester have further solidified that I can make a difference – it won’t happen over night or even possibly in my life time, but it doesn’t mean I can’t influence others or begin something wonderful.

I advocate for further education, I advocate for change.

What is a multi-functional landscape?

A multi-functional landscape provides a range of environmental, social, and economic functions with interests of landowners and users in mind.

This article will be based off the following research article: Creating multifunctional landscapes: how can the field of ecology inform the design of the landscape? By Sarah Taylor Lovell and Douglas M. Johnston

For Ecosystem Science and Management taught by Dr. Sutton at Tennessee State University, this article is for discussion on landscape ecology. The purpose of article discussions is to broaden horizons and create awareness of research being conducted in regards to specific areas.

The authors’ main point for the article: opportunities exist for ecosystem principles to influence the design of landscapes and ecologists should be involved in the process. This combines sustainability and cultural/aesthetic importance.

During my time at Tennessee Tech University in my Horticultural program, we discussed multi-functional landscapes. Some examples of these type of landscapes are edible landscapes, xeric landscaping, vegetation buffer zones between parking lots and drainage ways, waystations for butterflies, etc…

These types of landscapes serve more than just an aesthetic importance, they can provide resources for wildlife and even help encourage biodiversity.

The proposed steps for creating a multi-functional landscape are as follows:

1. Defining the project site and landscape context
2. Characterizing and analyzing landscape structure and functions
3. Developing a master plan using ecosystem approach
4. Designing sites to highlight ecological functions
5. Monitor ecological functions

In order to properly define the project site, you have to remember that every site affects the surroundings, either positive or negative. What happens when commercial or residential buildings are built is that it separates part of the ecosystem.

Multifunctional landscapes should become a staple in every landscape and be implemented anywhere and everywhere.

 

Pollinators play a significant role in Agriculture and our lives

This article will present recent research on a case of honeybees, monarch butterflies, and a way to mitigate monarch mortality.

Let’s paint a picture: imagine a field with beautiful green grass, rippling from the gentle wind. As you look over the field, there are flowers of vivid purple, astonishing white, soft pink, splashes of blue, and the occasional orange/yellow daisies reaching for the sun. Out of the corner of your eye, you see something fly by with a low buzz, and a honeybee lands at the flower by your foot.

Photo courtesy of Amber Dunnaway

Such a small organism, yet so vital to our survival. Most people are aware of the pollinator decline – bees, butterflies, etc… There are many factors contributing to the decline, and the most popularly known is the insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides.

In a study from 2017 on High pesticide risk to honey bees despite low focal crop pollen during pollination of a mass blooming crop, the authors presented information that the chemicals found in pollen and wax in the colony is not just from the treated crops (McArt, et.al. 2017). In an excerpt from the article:

“Pesticides that were not sprayed during bloom were found in beebread at 28 or 30 sites, averaging 2.8 novel pesticides per site. Overall, 64% of the pesticides we detected in beebread were not sprayed at the respective sites during apple bloom.” (McArt, et.al. 2017)

What this means is that the crops that surround agricultural fields that are being treated can catch and hold these pesticides, which is transferred to the pollinator – in this case, honey bees. Their findings fill a crucial gap in honey bee research and knowledge. Before this article, it was thought that the crops being treated affect bees greater than other, “non-focal” crops.

The researchers state “though our results suggest the greatest pesticide risk to bees came from non-focal crop pollen sources, our data cannot determine the exact mechanism or mechanisms of exposure” (McArt, et.al. 2017). To interpret this statement, they are not entirely sure if it from drift, direct treatment, etc…

What can we do about honey bees?

In general, large agricultural production need to use pollinator friendly chemicals, and there needs to be more research into these chemicals to ensure availability, performance, and be economically attainable.

Bee keepers can plant pollinator-friendly plants, but they cannot dictate how far bees travel, where they harvest from, and control agricultural production around them. It begins with being a good steward of the environment, and then striving to become a sustainable community where we preserve what we have for future generations.

Refer back to your original painted picture: The flowers are swaying in the wind, and a beautiful monarch butterfly lands on a milkweed, emerging by itself.

Courtesy of blog.hmns.org

Monarchs (Danaus plexippus) are becoming increasingly rare. These beautiful creatures go through four generations before they migrate from Eastern North America to overwinter in Mexico (Agrawal, Inamine 2018). However, environmental and human activities is the identified factor in declining the monarch population.

Environmental problems is extreme weather changes and diseases. An example of the extreme weather changes is stated in the research article Mechanisms behind the Monarch’s Decline: Migratory failure may contribute to the dwindling of this iconic butterfly’s population. The example stated was in the summer of 2017, the weather was extended later into the year, allowing the monarch to complete another life cycle. By completing this extra cycle, it delayed their migratory pilgrimage and changed the rate of success during their travel.

Human activities include pesticides, habitat loss, and reducing availability of milkweed (Agrawal, Inamine 2017). The application of pesticides can kill monarch caterpillars and larvae.  Habitat loss in the Eastern North America, Mexico, and their path of travel being interrupted. Milkweed decline is due to “agricultural intensification, particularly the widespread adoption of herbicide-tolerant crops in the Midwest” and is the “champion” of monarch decline (Agrawal, Inamine 2017).

Milkweed is crucial for monarch reproduction, but is not the source of food for the adult – only their offspring. The researchers stated “butterfly migrants cease to rely on milkweed at the end of the summer. Instead, they depend on floral nectar from a range of plants, water to to drink, and safe passage for their journey to Mexico” (Agrawal, Inamine 2017). This leads into something WE can do!

http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?kempercode=b480

What We Can Do To Help Monarchs

In my undergraduate studies at Tennessee Tech University, I created a presentation on Butterfly Waystations. In the words of Jim Lovett of Kentucky University, “a butterfly waystation is a place that provides resources necessary for monarchs to produce successive generations and sustain their migration” (Lovett).

The attractive aspect of creating a waystation is that the monarchs will stop at this garden, visit, and leave safely. Who wouldn’t want to look out their window and see pollinators of all sorts visiting beautiful flowers?

If one wishes to be recognized, there is a certification that can be achieved from creating a waystation. The requirements are to have a 135 sq.ft. area/bed, milkweeds, nectar plants, and be pesticide-free. Jim Lovett gives a recommended seed kit to start such a waystation:

Name	Scientific	Use
Butterfly Weed	Asclepias tuberosa	Milkweed
Common Milkweed	Asclepias syriaca	Milkweed
Swamp Milkweed	Asclepias incarnata	Milkweed
Indian Blanket	Gaillardia pulchella	Nectar
Purple Coneflower	Echinaceae purpurea	Nectar
Joe Pye Weed	Eupatorium purpureum	Nectar
Scarlet Sage	Salvia coccinea	Nectar
Tithonia Torch/ Mexican Sunflower	Tithonia	Nectar
Zinna/Dahlia Mix	Zinnia elegans	Nectar

These flowers are highly suggested, but it does not mean there aren’t other plants that cannot be used in this garden. The recommended plants are those that are native to your area or crucial in providing nectar to pollinators.

I have the references listed below if you are interested in looking at these sources or continuing research of your own. This article was to educate about new research for honeybees, give information about monarchs, and offer a way to help mitigate monarch mortality.

Resources:

Agrawal, A. A., & Inamine, H. (2018). Mechanisms behind the Monarch’s Decline: Migratory failure may contribute to the dwindling of this iconic butterfly’s population [Abstract]. Science Magazine,360(6395), 1294-1296. Retrieved October 24, 2018, from http://www.eeb.cornell.edu/agrawal/blog/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/agrawal-and-inamine-2018-science.pdf

Allen, J. “Our Monarch Waystation.” Monarch Waystation | Our Habitat Garden, Janet Allen, www.ourhabitatgarden.org/creatures/monarchs-waystation.html.

“How to Create Your Own Monarch Butterfly Rest Stop.” Video, National Geographic, video.nationalgeographic.com/video/news/140819-monarch-butterfly-way-station-vin.

jlovett@ku.edu, Jim Lovett -. “Monarch Waystations.” Monarch Watch : Monarch Waystation Program, Monarch Watch, monarchwatch.org/waystations/seed_kit.html.

McArt, S. H. et al. High pesticide risk to honey bees despite low focal crop pollen collection during pollination of a mass blooming crop. Sci. Rep. 7, 46554; doi: 10.1038/srep46554 (2017).

In a recent Ecosystem Science and Management class at Tennessee State University, we had a guest speaker, Dr. Tom Byl from the United States Geological Survey. He spoke about hydrology and it’s relationship with ecosystems, but one of the topics from his lecture really intrigued me – harmful algal blooms.

What are Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB)?

There is a difference between an absurd amount of algal accumulation (eutrophication) and HAB. Harmful algal blooms is an accumulation of algae in a body of water that releases toxins.

The main toxin producing and releasing algae are called cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria is blue-green algae.

Photo courtesy of http://www.nhpr.org/post/something-wild-cyanobacteria-0#stream/0

However, it is not just blue-green algae. Other culprits are chlorophytes (green algae), chrysophytes (golden-brown algae), dinoflagellates, and diatoms.

The toxins excreted can cause many issues:

• Taste and odor problems
• Rashes
• Liver and kidney tumors
• Neurological damages such as shutting down the respiratory system and memory loss

HAB is not a joke – it is causing concern for cities around large bodies of water. Any ingestion of or submersion in HAB infested waters is a highly dangerous situation and should not be taken lightly.

Harmful algal blooms also threaten ecosystems. In a research paper titled Alternate Food-chain Transfer of the Toxin linked to Avian Vacuolar Myelinpathy and Implications for the Endangered Florida Snail Kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis) by Shelley R. Dodd, Rebecca S. Haynie, Susan M. Williams, and Susan B. Wilde, they discussed how HAB is affecting birds.

To summarize the paper, the Snail Kite eats a specific snail called the island applesnail. This snail eats an algae that harbors toxins. When the bird eats the snail, it has an increased chance of dying from damage to the central nervous system. To read the article, please follow this link: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.7589/2015-03-061

Harmful algal blooms are detrimental to all organisms. To prevent further damage, we need to be able to know what causes HAB.

What causes HAB?

Harmful algal blooms accumulate and blossom where there is a high Phosphorus and Nitrogen nutrient content. This tends to be where there has been run-off from agricultural fields, urbanization, or just accumulating from changing the stream dynamics where it deposits.

An example of changing the stream dynamics is a reservoir – it has held water back for many years. Over time, nutrients have accumulated at the bottom. Instead of being recycled into the nutrient cycle, they are returned to the surface where the algae take up the excess Phosphorus and Nitrogen.

HAB needs the right amount of each of these different categories: nutrients, temperature, light, and residence time.

Residence time is the period in which they are active. As the climate increasingly changes, their residence time becomes longer, allowing more toxins to excrete into the water supply.

 Courtesy of Dr. Byl PowerPoint on September 19, 2018

In Tennessee, and further south for that matter, the cooler temperatures are being delayed further and further with each year. This change in temperatures is allowing HAB to flourish and produce more problems.

What is the solution?

Some biological controls have been tested. Biological controls is using natural predators to control the issue. An example is zooplankton grazers – the filamentous cyanobacteria is rather large and grows at such a rate that the grazers are unable to keep up, plus the cyanobacteria lacks nutritional value for the grazers.

So, the best way to manage harmful algal blooms is to monitor and control the nutrient inputs into the water. This means that farmers and big corporations need to use the correct amount of fertilizer for their crops and monitor irrigation to prevent run-off.

 

I want to make something clear:

Carelessness is not a trait of the average farmer. An average farmer takes the time to carefully consider the amount of fertilizer they need, monitor their crops accordingly, and respect the environment. It is unfortunate that the problems associated with agriculture are due to corporations or certain farm’s carelessness, giving the rest of the field a bad reputation. The strides made in the agricultural field to become more sustainable and environmentally friendly are outstanding.

Educating the masses is crucial. People are unaware of what is happening unless they are reached out to and taught. That is the purpose of this post – to educate and bring awareness to environmental problems.